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Topics common to Paper 1 and Paper 2

Formulae, equations and hazards

0.1 - Recalling chemical formulae

0.2 - Word equations

0.3 - Balancing chemical equations

0.4 - Writing ionic equations

0.5 - Recognising chemical hazards

0.6 - Assessing practical risks and precautions

Topic 1 - Key concepts in chemistry

Atomic structure

1.1 - How atomic models changed

1.2 - Inside the atom

1.3 - Charges and masses of subatomic particles

1.4 - Why atoms are electrically neutral

1.5 - The sizes of atoms and nuclei

1.6 - Where an atom's mass is concentrated

1.7 - Understanding mass number

1.8 - Atomic number and element identity

1.10 - Counting protons, neutrons and electrons

1.11 - Why relative atomic masses are not always whole numbers

1.12 - Calculating relative atomic mass from isotopes

The periodic table

1.13 - Mendeleev's periodic table

1.14 - Mendeleev's predictions

1.15 - Isotopes and the order of the periodic table

1.16 - Atomic number and position in the periodic table

1.17 - Periods, groups and atomic number

1.18 - Metals and non-metals in the periodic table

1.19 - Electron arrangements of the first 20 elements

1.20 - Linking electron arrangements to the periodic table

Ionic bonding

1.21 - Electron transfer and ionic bonding

1.22 - Understanding ions

1.23 - Counting particles in ions

1.24 - How ions form in ionic compounds

1.25 - Naming compounds: -ide and -ate

1.26 - Writing formulae of ionic compounds

1.27 - The ionic lattice

Covalent bonding

1.28 - Covalent bonds and shared electron pairs

1.29 - How covalent bonds form molecules

1.30 - The sizes of atoms and molecules

1.31 - Drawing dot-and-cross diagrams

Types of substance

1.32 - Classifying structures and bonding

1.33 - Properties of ionic compounds

1.34 - Properties of simple molecular substances

1.35 - Carbon and giant covalent structures

1.36 - Structures of graphite and diamond

1.37 - How structure explains uses of diamond and graphite

1.38 - Properties of fullerenes, C60 and graphene

1.39 - Simple polymers and poly(ethene)

1.40 - Properties of metals

1.41 - What scientific models can and cannot show

1.42 - Comparing metals and non-metals

Calculations involving masses

1.43 - Relative formula mass and percentage by mass

1.44 - Empirical formulae from masses and percentages

1.45 - Empirical and molecular formulae

1.46 - Finding the formula of magnesium oxide

1.47 - Conservation of mass in closed and open systems

1.48 - Masses from balanced equations

1.49 - Calculating mass concentration

1.50 - The mole and the Avogadro constant

1.51 - Moles, particles and mass calculations

1.52 - Limiting reactants and mass of product

1.53 - Finding reaction ratios from masses

Topic 2 - States of matter and mixtures

States of matter

2.1 - Particle model of solids, liquids and gases

2.2 - Changes of state

2.3 - Explaining changes of state using particles

2.4 - Predicting physical state from conditions

Methods of separating and purifying substances

2.5 - Pure substances and mixtures

2.6 - Using melting points to test purity

2.7 - Separation techniques for mixtures

2.8 - Choosing a separation method

2.9 - Paper chromatography and phases

2.10 - Reading chromatograms and calculating Rf

2.11 - Investigating inks by distillation and chromatography

2.12 - Drinking water and laboratory water

Topic 3 - Chemical changes

Electrolytic processes

3.22 - What makes a substance an electrolyte?

3.23 - How electrolysis breaks down a compound

3.24 - Ion movement during electrolysis

3.25 - Predicting electrolysis products with inert electrodes

3.26 - Electrolysis of molten binary compounds

3.27 - Writing electrode half-equations

3.28 - Oxidation and reduction as electron transfer

3.29 - Oxidation and reduction at the electrodes

3.30 - Copper purification by electrolysis

3.31 - Investigating copper sulfate electrolysis

Topic 4 - Extracting metals and equilibria

Obtaining and using metals

4.1 - Comparing the reactivity of metals

4.2 - Displacement reactions as redox reactions

4.3 - Reactivity and the formation of metal ions

4.4 - Where metals are found

4.5 - Oxidation and reduction involving oxygen

4.6 - Why extracting metals requires reduction

4.7 - Choosing a metal extraction method

4.8 - Biological methods of metal extraction

4.9 - Resistance to oxidation and the reactivity series

4.10 - Advantages of recycling metals

4.11 - Life-cycle assessment stages

4.12 - Evaluating life-cycle assessment data

Reversible reactions and equilibria

4.13 - Understanding reversible reactions

4.14 - Dynamic equilibrium

4.15 - Making ammonia in a reversible reaction

4.16 - Conditions for the Haber process

4.17 - How conditions shift an equilibrium

Topic 5 - Separate chemistry 1

Transition metals, alloys and corrosion

5.1C - Properties of transition metals

5.2C - Oxidation of metals and corrosion

5.3C - Preventing rusting of iron

5.4C - Electroplating to improve metal objects

5.5C - Why alloys are often stronger than pure metals

5.6C - Why iron is alloyed to make alloy steels

5.7C - Uses and properties of metals and alloys

Quantitative analysis

5.8C - Calculating molar concentration

5.9C - Accurate acid-alkali titration

5.10C - Calculating concentrations and volumes from titrations

5.11C - Calculating percentage yield

5.12C - Why actual yield is usually lower than theoretical yield

5.13C - Understanding atom economy

5.14C - Calculating atom economy

5.15C - Choosing reaction pathways using data

5.16C - Molar gas volume at room conditions

5.17C - Gas volumes and balanced equations

5.18C - Gas volume calculations using Avogadro's law

The Haber process and fertilisers

5.19C - Ammonia and the reversible Haber reaction

5.20C - How quickly equilibrium is reached

5.21C - Choosing industrial equilibrium conditions

5.22C - Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilisers

5.23C - Making ammonium nitrate

5.24C - Making ammonium sulfate in the lab and industry

Chemical cells and fuel cells

5.25C - How a chemical cell produces a voltage

5.26C - Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells

5.27C - Evaluating fuel cells

Topic 6 - Groups in the periodic table

Group 1 - Alkali metals

6.1 - Recognising Groups 1, 7 and 0

6.2 - Physical properties of alkali metals

6.3 - How alkali metals react with water

6.4 - Comparing alkali-metal reactivity

6.5 - Explaining alkali-metal reactivity

Group 7 - Halogens

6.6 - Colours and states of the halogens

6.7 - Physical property trends in halogens

6.8 - Chemical test for chlorine

6.9 - Halogen reactions with metals

6.10 - Hydrogen halides and acidic solutions

6.11 - Halogen displacement reactions

6.12 - Halogen displacement reactions as redox

6.13 - Explaining halogen reactivity

Group 0 - Noble gases

6.14 - Why noble gases are chemically inert

6.15 - How properties explain noble-gas uses

6.16 - Physical property trends in noble gases

Topic 7 - Rates of reaction and energy changes

Rates of reaction

7.1 - Measuring rates through gas and colour changes

7.2 - Choosing methods to measure reaction rates

7.3 - Reactions occur when particles collide

7.4 - Explaining changes in rate using collision theory

7.5 - Interpreting reaction-rate graphs

7.6 - Catalysts and reaction rate

7.7 - How catalysts lower activation energy

7.8 - Enzymes in alcoholic-drink production

Heat energy changes in chemical reactions

7.9 - Measuring temperature changes in reactions

7.10 - Exothermic changes and reactions

7.11 - Endothermic changes and reactions

7.12 - Energy in breaking and forming bonds

7.13 - Explaining the overall energy change

7.14 - Energy change from bond energies

7.15 - Activation energy

7.16 - Reading and drawing reaction profiles

Topic 8 - Fuels and Earth science

Fuels

8.1 - What hydrocarbons contain

8.2 - Crude oil as a mixture

8.3 - Fractional distillation of crude oil

8.4 - Uses of crude-oil fractions

8.5 - How crude-oil fractions differ

8.6 - Homologous series

8.7 - Complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels

8.8 - Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons

8.9 - Why carbon monoxide is toxic

8.10 - Incomplete combustion and appliance safety

8.11 - How burning fuels produces sulfur dioxide

8.12 - Sulfur dioxide and acid rain

8.13 - How engines produce nitrogen oxides

8.14 - Comparing hydrogen and petrol as fuels

8.15 - Fossil fuels and non-renewable resources

8.16 - Cracking long-chain hydrocarbons

8.17 - Why cracking is necessary

Earth and atmospheric science

8.18 - Volcanic gases and Earth's early atmosphere

8.19 - Composition of Earth's early atmosphere

8.20 - How the oceans formed

8.21 - How the oceans removed carbon dioxide

8.22 - Photosynthesis and rising oxygen levels

8.23 - Chemical test for oxygen

8.24 - The greenhouse effect

8.25 - Evidence linking human activity to climate change

8.26 - Today's atmosphere and climate effects

Topic 9 - Separate chemistry 2

Chemical tests for gases and ions

9.1C - Choosing an identifying test for an ion

9.2C - Flame tests for metal ions

9.3C - Sodium hydroxide tests for cations

9.4C - Chemical test for ammonia

9.5C - Tests for carbonate, sulfate and halide ions

9.6C - Identifying ions in unknown salts

9.7C - Interpreting ion-test results

9.8C - Instrumental methods of analysis

9.9C - Flame photometer data

Hydrocarbons

9.10C - Drawing and naming the first four alkanes

9.11C - Why alkanes are saturated

9.12C - Formulae and structures of alkenes

9.13C - Why alkenes are unsaturated

9.14C - Addition reaction of ethene with bromine

9.15C - Distinguishing alkanes and alkenes

9.16C - Complete combustion of alkanes and alkenes

Polymers

9.17C - Polymers and repeating units

9.18C - Ethene polymerisation to poly(ethene)

9.19C - Addition polymers from monomers with C=C bonds

9.20C - Monomers and addition polymers

9.21C - Uses and properties of polymers

9.22C - Polyesters as condensation polymers

9.23C - Environmental problems caused by polymers

9.24C - Evaluating polymer recycling

9.25C - Natural polymers: DNA, starch and proteins

Alcohols and carboxylic acids

9.26C - Drawing and naming the first four alcohols

9.27C - Alcohols and dehydration

9.28C - Investigating energy released by alcohols

9.29C - Formulae and structures of carboxylic acids

9.30C - The carboxyl group and acidity

9.31C - Ethanol oxidation to ethanoic acid

9.32C - Using homologous series to predict reactions

9.33C - Production of ethanol by fermentation

9.34C - Concentrating ethanol by fractional distillation

Materials and nanoparticles

9.35C - The size of nanoparticles

9.36C - Nanoparticle properties and uses

9.37C - Evaluating nanoparticle risks

9.38C - Comparing ceramics, polymers, composites and metals

9.39C - Choosing materials using evidence

4.5 - Oxidation and reduction involving oxygen

4.5 - Oxidation and reduction involving oxygen

Track oxygen through reactions to identify oxidation and reduction. You will learn to name the substance that changes and explain whether it gains or loses oxygen.

Gain and loss of oxygen

Oxidation and reduction involving oxygen

Oxidation is gain of oxygen. Reduction is loss of oxygen.

For example, magnesium is oxidised when it burns:

Plain text

2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO

Magnesium gains oxygen and forms magnesium oxide. To explain oxidation, name the starting substance and link it to oxygen gain.

Reduction reverses this kind of oxygen change. In the reaction below, copper(II) oxide loses oxygen and is reduced to copper:

Plain text

CuO + H₂ → Cu + H₂O

Hydrogen gains that oxygen and forms water, so hydrogen is oxidised. Oxygen has been transferred, not destroyed. Copper(II) oxide is the substance reduced; copper is its product.

Follow both reactants

Consider the reaction of copper(II) oxide with carbon on heating:

Plain text

2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO₂

Reactant	Oxygen change	Redox change
Copper(II) oxide	Loses oxygen to form copper	Reduced
Carbon	Gains oxygen to form carbon dioxide	Oxidised

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