2K - The First and Second Balkan Wars: causes
Learn why the Balkan states defeated the Ottoman Empire in 1912 and then fought one another in 1913. Explain how Great Power diplomacy contained the wars while leaving Serbia stronger, Austria-Hungary more anxious and the region less secure.
The Balkan League and the opportunity for war
The First Balkan War arose from an opportunity to take Ottoman territory, combined with rival national ambitions that the Balkan states temporarily set aside. Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro formed the Balkan League in 1912. They sought to remove Ottoman rule from much of the remaining European empire, but they did not agree on a single future for its inhabitants.
Serbia wanted expansion into Kosovo and Macedonia and an outlet to the Adriatic Sea. Bulgaria wanted to bring territories it claimed as Bulgarian, especially in Macedonia and Thrace, under its rule. Greece sought areas it regarded as Greek, including southern Macedonia and the important port of Salonika, now Thessaloniki. Montenegro sought neighbouring Ottoman territory, notably around Scutari, now Shkodër. These claims overlapped because language, religion and settlement patterns did not produce clear national frontiers. National liberation for one state could mean rule by a new outside power for another population.
The Ottoman Empire's war against Italy in 1911–1912 exposed its vulnerability and diverted resources. Italy attacked Ottoman possessions in North Africa and occupied the Dodecanese islands. Unrest in Ottoman European territories and difficulties following the Young Turk revolution added to the impression of weakness. The League members judged that acting together offered better prospects than waiting for the Great Powers to settle the region themselves. Russia encouraged Balkan cooperation as a means of increasing its influence, but encouragement did not give Russia complete control over the League's decisions.
Montenegro began the war in October 1912, with its partners following. The League's rapid victories drove Ottoman forces back towards Constantinople and left most Ottoman territory in Europe in the victors' hands. The Treaty of London in May 1913 confirmed the loss of territory west of the Enos–Midia line, with Albania and the islands subject to Great Power decisions. Military victory resolved the question of Ottoman possession far more effectively than it resolved the question of which victor should inherit each territory.
Great Power diplomacy and Albania
The Great Powers tried to prevent a regional war from becoming a war between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Before fighting began, they warned against territorial changes; victory made that position impossible to maintain. Diplomacy therefore shifted towards controlling the settlement and restraining the victors.
Britain's Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, hosted the ambassadors of the six Great Powers in London from December 1912. Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and Austria-Hungary had different interests, but shared an immediate incentive to avoid a general European war. Negotiation could succeed because the powers were willing to compromise on regional disputes rather than support every demand of their smaller partners.
Albania was the sharpest dispute. Serbian access to the Adriatic would give it greater commercial independence from Austria-Hungary and increase its regional weight. Vienna therefore supported an independent Albania that would block Serbian expansion to the coast. Italy also opposed a strong rival on the opposite side of the Adriatic. Albanian independence had its own local supporters: Albanian leaders proclaimed it in November 1912. The Great Powers' recognition and border decisions, however, were shaped by their strategic concerns as well as Albanian claims.
Russia supported Serbia diplomatically but did not fight to secure a Serbian port. Serbia withdrew from the coast under pressure. When Montenegro captured Scutari in April 1913, the powers insisted it be included in Albania; a naval demonstration helped force Montenegro to relinquish it. Further Austro-Hungarian pressure secured Serbian withdrawal from Albanian territory later in 1913. These episodes show coercion working alongside conferences. They also show the limits of Great Power protection: a small ally could be supported on some issues and restrained on others.
The Great Powers imposed some limits on expansion, especially in Albania. Containing a war did not require satisfying every national ambition, and the resulting dissatisfaction could become a cause of the next crisis.
Why the victors fought over Macedonia
The Second Balkan War began because the distribution of victory broke the Balkan League apart. Bulgaria expected a large share of Macedonia under its agreement with Serbia. Serbia, denied an Adriatic outlet by the Albanian settlement, sought compensation by retaining more of the Macedonian territory its army occupied. Greece also wanted to keep its gains, including Salonika. Military occupation and national expectations now pulled in opposite directions.
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