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3.1.1 Water and carbon cycles

Water stores and transfers

3.1.1.1 - Water and carbon as systems

3.1.1.2 - Global water stores and transfers

3.1.1.2, 3.1.1.5 - Drainage basins and water balance

3.1.1.2, 3.1.1.5 - Runoff and flood hydrographs

3.1.1.2 - Natural and human changes to water cycling

Carbon and climate

3.1.1.3 - Carbon stores and transfers

3.1.1.3, 3.1.1.5 - Changing carbon stores and budgets

3.1.1.4 - Water, carbon, climate and life

3.1.1.4 - Managing carbon transfers

Cycle case studies

3.1.1.6 - Tropical rainforest water and carbon

3.1.1.6, 3.1.1.5 - A local river catchment and field evidence

3.2.1 Global systems and global governance

Global networks and trade

3.2.1.1 - Globalisation flows and driving forces

3.2.1.2 - Interdependence, unequal flows and power

3.2.1.3 - Trade patterns and access to markets

3.2.1.3 - A transnational corporation and its impacts

3.2.1.3 - A global commodity chain and everyday lives

Governance and global commons

3.2.1.4 - Global governance across scales

3.2.1.5, 3.2.1.5.1 - Global commons and Antarctic geography

3.2.1.5.1 - Antarctic pressures and environmental change

3.2.1.5.1 - Governing and protecting Antarctica

Globalisation and evidence

3.2.1.6, 3.2.1.7 - Evaluating globalisation with evidence

3.2.2 Changing places

Place character and connections

3.2.2.1 - Place, experience and perspectives

3.2.2.1 - Endogenous and exogenous place character

3.2.2.2, 3.2.2.2.1 - Flows, connections and external forces

3.2.2.2.1 - Demographic and cultural change in places

3.2.2.2.1 - Economic change and social inequalities

Meaning and representation

3.2.2.2.2 - Lived experience, meaning and identity

3.2.2.2.2, 3.2.2.3 - Representations of place and critical evidence

3.2.2.2.2 - Place making and past development

Contrasting place studies

3.2.2.4 - A local place through past and present evidence

3.2.2.4 - A distant contrasting place and comparison

3.4 Geographical evidence and methods

Spatial and field evidence

3.4.1, 3.4.2.1, 3.4.2.2, 3.4.2.5 - Maps, spatial data and GIS in geographical enquiry

3.4.2.1, 3.4.2.5 - Field sketches, photographs and remote sensing

3.4.1, 3.4.2.1 - Measurement, sampling and data quality

3.4.1, 3.4.2.1 - Interviews, questionnaires and qualitative coding

Graphs and statistical enquiry

3.4.2.3 - Choosing and interpreting geographical graphs

3.4.2.3 - Triangular, logarithmic and dispersion graphs

3.4.1, 3.4.2.4 - Central tendency and dispersion in field data

3.4.1, 3.4.2.4 - Spearman's rank and significance

3.4.2.4 - Chi-square and geographical hypotheses

Critical geographical arguments

3.4, 3.4.1, 3.4.2.5, 4.1, 4.2 - Critical data use and evidenced geographical arguments

3.1.2 Hot desert systems and landscapes

Aridity and desert processes

3.1.2.1 - Desert systems and global aridity

3.1.2.1 - Climate, soils and vegetation at desert margins

3.1.2.2 - Desert energy and sediment budgets

3.1.2.2 - Weathering and mass movement in drylands

3.1.2.2, 3.1.2.3 - Wind processes and aeolian landforms

3.1.2.2, 3.1.2.3 - Episodic water and arid landforms

Desertification and evidence

3.1.2.4 - Desertification, risk and changing extent

3.1.2.4, 3.1.2.6 - Desertification responses and local futures

3.1.2.5, 3.1.2.6 - A hot desert setting and field evidence

3.1.2.3 - Process, time and contrasting desert landscapes

3.1.3 Coastal systems and landscapes

Coastal processes and landscapes

3.1.3.1, 3.1.3.2 - Coastal systems and energy

3.1.3.2 - Sediment cells and coastal processes

3.1.3.3 - Erosional coastal landscapes

3.1.3.3 - Depositional coastal landscapes

3.1.3.3 - Estuaries, mudflats and saltmarshes

3.1.3.3 - Sea level and emergent or submerged coasts

3.1.3.3 - Climate, time and coastal landscape change

Management and contrasting coasts

3.1.3.4 - Engineering and sustainable coastal management

3.1.3.5 - Coastal field measurements and spatial evidence

3.1.3.6 - Local coastal processes and sustainable management

3.1.3.6 - A contrasting coast beyond the UK

3.1.4 Glacial systems and landscapes

Ice processes and landscapes

3.1.4.1, 3.1.4.2 - Cold environments and glacial systems

3.1.4.3 - Glacial budgets, advance and retreat

3.1.4.3 - Glacier types, movement and weathering

3.1.4.3, 3.1.4.4 - Glacial erosion and landscapes

3.1.4.3, 3.1.4.4 - Glacial transport and depositional landforms

3.1.4.3, 3.1.4.4 - Meltwater and fluvioglacial landscapes

3.1.4.3, 3.1.4.4 - Periglacial processes and landscapes

Cold-environment management and evidence

3.1.4.5 - Fragile cold environments and their futures

3.1.4.6 - Glacial field measurements and spatial evidence

3.1.4.7, 3.1.4.4 - Local glacial processes and landscape evidence

3.1.4.7 - A contrasting glaciated landscape beyond the UK

3.1.5 Hazards

Risk and tectonic hazards

3.1.5.1 - Hazard risk, perception and responses

3.1.5.2 - Earth structure and plate movement

3.1.5.2 - Plate margins, landforms and magma plumes

3.1.5.3 - Volcanic hazards and their patterns

3.1.5.3 - A recent volcanic event and responses

3.1.5.4 - Seismic hazards and their patterns

3.1.5.4 - A recent seismic event and responses

Atmospheric hazards and hazardous places

3.1.5.5 - Tropical storms and hazard patterns

3.1.5.5 - Two contrasting recent tropical storms

3.1.5.6 - Wildfire processes, impacts and responses

3.1.5.7 - A multi-hazardous environment beyond the UK

3.1.5.7 - A local community in a hazardous setting

3.1.6 Ecosystems under stress

Ecosystem functioning and biomes

3.1.6.1 - Biodiversity and ecosystem sustainability

3.1.6.2 - Ecosystem structure, energy and nutrient cycling

3.1.6.2 - Succession, environmental controls and change

3.1.6.3 - Biomes and tropical rainforest adaptations

3.1.6.3 - Savanna adaptations and biome comparison

3.1.6.3 - Development pressures in rainforest and savanna

Changing ecosystems and management

3.1.6.4 - British Isles succession and plagioclimax

3.1.6.5 - Coral reef processes, threats and futures

3.1.6.6, 3.1.6.7 - A local ecosystem and conservation

3.1.6.7 - Regional ecological change and community responses

3.2.3 Contemporary urban environments

Urban growth, form and inequality

3.2.3.1 - Urbanisation, megacities and world cities

3.2.3.1 - Urban growth, economic change and British policy

3.2.3.2 - Urban forms, land use and new landscapes

3.2.3.2, 3.2.3.3 - Inequality, segregation and cultural diversity

Urban physical systems and waste

3.2.3.4 - Urban climate, wind and air quality

3.2.3.5 - Urban water cycles and sustainable drainage

3.2.3.5 - Evaluating an urban river restoration project

3.2.3.6 - Urban waste and disposal choices

Environment and sustainable urban places

3.2.3.7 - Urban pollution and dereliction

3.2.3.8 - Sustainable cities, footprints and liveability

3.2.3.9 - An urban area's well-being and environment

3.2.3.9 - A contrasting urban area and sustainability

3.2.4 Population and the environment

Environment, food and health

3.2.4.1 - Population patterns and environmental context

3.2.4.2 - Climate, food systems and food security

3.2.4.2 - Zonal soils, agricultural problems and management

3.2.4.3 - Health patterns, development and environment

3.2.4.3 - A biologically transmitted disease

3.2.4.3 - A non-communicable disease and global health

Population change and futures

3.2.4.4 - Natural population change and the demographic dividend

3.2.4.4 - Migration processes and consequences

3.2.4.5 - Population ecology, resources and competing models

3.2.4.6 - Environmental change and population futures

Population and health case studies

3.2.4.7 - Population change in a country or society

3.2.4.7 - A local area's environment, health and experience

3.2.5 Resource security

Resource development and water security

3.2.5.1 - Resources, frontiers and sustainable development

3.2.5.2 - Resource patterns, trade and geopolitics

3.2.5.3 - Water availability, demand and stress

3.2.5.3 - Water supply strategies and a major scheme

3.2.5.3 - Water consumption, sustainability and conflict

Energy and mineral security

3.2.5.4 - Energy sources, demand and competing interests

3.2.5.4 - Energy development and supply strategies

3.2.5.4 - Energy demand management and sustainability

3.2.5.5 - A traded metal ore and extraction impacts

Resource futures and place studies

3.2.5.6 - Alternative resource futures

3.2.5.7 - Resource security and welfare in a regional setting

3.2.5.7 - Physical environment and resource use in a place

3.3 Independent geographical investigation

Planning and field investigation

3.3.1, 3.3.2.1, 3.3.2.2 - Fieldwork requirements and independent enquiry

3.3.2, 3.3.4.1 - Research questions, context and preliminary research

3.3.2, 3.3.4.2 - Fieldwork design, sampling and method justification

3.3.2, 3.3.4.2 - Collecting relevant, good-quality field evidence

Analysis, reporting and independence

3.3.2, 3.3.4.3 - Analysing, representing and interrogating field data

3.3.2, 3.3.3, 3.3.4.4 - Conclusions, wider context and evaluation

3.3.2, 3.3.4.4 - Coherent reporting, referencing and ethical reflection

3.3.2.2, 5.1, 5.2 - Authenticity, assistance and the candidate record

3.1.2.2, 3.1.2.3 - Wind processes and aeolian landforms

3.1.2.2, 3.1.2.3 - Wind processes and aeolian landforms

Link wind erosion, transport and deposition to distinctive landforms, using sediment supply, rock resistance and wind direction to explain contrasts.

Entrainment, transport and deposition

Deflation removes loose material from a surface. Abrasion wears exposed rock when wind-driven grains strike it. Wind itself does not sandblast rock without an abrasive load. Sparse vegetation and dry loose sediment favour entrainment, but moisture, cohesion and coarse armour can resist it.

Fine particles can remain in suspension and travel far. Sand-sized particles commonly move by saltation: short hops that strike the bed and dislodge other grains. Larger grains move by surface creep, rolling or sliding following wind force or impacts. Grain size alone is not an absolute rule because wind strength and surface conditions vary. Deposition occurs when wind loses transporting capacity or an obstacle traps grains; vegetation can both restrict initial erosion and encourage deposition.

Wind transport and contrasting barchan and seif dune forms

Schematic, not a measured site. Transport paths distinguish suspension, saltation and surface creep; dune geometry is explained below.

Hollows and desert pavements

A deflation hollow develops where removal exceeds replacement and the surface is lowered. Its growth may stop when coarse armour, resistant rock, moisture or vegetation limits further removal. A hollow is therefore evidence of erosion, but its present depth does not measure the current wind strength.

Desert pavement is a close surface cover of stones over finer material. Selective deflation can leave coarse clasts as a lag that protects the surface. Some pavements instead develop through dust accumulation beneath clasts and soil processes that keep stones at the surface, with little net lowering. Describe what is observed and evaluate the possible history; do not assume that all pavement formed only by removal of fines.

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