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3.1.1 Water and carbon cycles

Water stores and transfers

3.1.1.1 - Water and carbon as systems

3.1.1.2 - Global water stores and transfers

3.1.1.2, 3.1.1.5 - Drainage basins and water balance

3.1.1.2, 3.1.1.5 - Runoff and flood hydrographs

3.1.1.2 - Natural and human changes to water cycling

Carbon and climate

3.1.1.3 - Carbon stores and transfers

3.1.1.3, 3.1.1.5 - Changing carbon stores and budgets

3.1.1.4 - Water, carbon, climate and life

3.1.1.4 - Managing carbon transfers

Cycle case studies

3.1.1.6 - Tropical rainforest water and carbon

3.1.1.6, 3.1.1.5 - A local river catchment and field evidence

3.2.1 Global systems and global governance

Global networks and trade

3.2.1.1 - Globalisation flows and driving forces

3.2.1.2 - Interdependence, unequal flows and power

3.2.1.3 - Trade patterns and access to markets

3.2.1.3 - A transnational corporation and its impacts

3.2.1.3 - A global commodity chain and everyday lives

Governance and global commons

3.2.1.4 - Global governance across scales

3.2.1.5, 3.2.1.5.1 - Global commons and Antarctic geography

3.2.1.5.1 - Antarctic pressures and environmental change

3.2.1.5.1 - Governing and protecting Antarctica

Globalisation and evidence

3.2.1.6, 3.2.1.7 - Evaluating globalisation with evidence

3.2.2 Changing places

Place character and connections

3.2.2.1 - Place, experience and perspectives

3.2.2.1 - Endogenous and exogenous place character

3.2.2.2, 3.2.2.2.1 - Flows, connections and external forces

3.2.2.2.1 - Demographic and cultural change in places

3.2.2.2.1 - Economic change and social inequalities

Meaning and representation

3.2.2.2.2 - Lived experience, meaning and identity

3.2.2.2.2, 3.2.2.3 - Representations of place and critical evidence

3.2.2.2.2 - Place making and past development

Contrasting place studies

3.2.2.4 - A local place through past and present evidence

3.2.2.4 - A distant contrasting place and comparison

3.4 Geographical evidence and methods

Spatial and field evidence

3.4.1, 3.4.2.1, 3.4.2.2, 3.4.2.5 - Maps, spatial data and GIS in geographical enquiry

3.4.2.1, 3.4.2.5 - Field sketches, photographs and remote sensing

3.4.1, 3.4.2.1 - Measurement, sampling and data quality

3.4.1, 3.4.2.1 - Interviews, questionnaires and qualitative coding

Graphs and statistical enquiry

3.4.2.3 - Choosing and interpreting geographical graphs

3.4.2.3 - Triangular, logarithmic and dispersion graphs

3.4.1, 3.4.2.4 - Central tendency and dispersion in field data

3.4.1, 3.4.2.4 - Spearman's rank and significance

3.4.2.4 - Chi-square and geographical hypotheses

Critical geographical arguments

3.4, 3.4.1, 3.4.2.5, 4.1, 4.2 - Critical data use and evidenced geographical arguments

3.1.2 Hot desert systems and landscapes

Aridity and desert processes

3.1.2.1 - Desert systems and global aridity

3.1.2.1 - Climate, soils and vegetation at desert margins

3.1.2.2 - Desert energy and sediment budgets

3.1.2.2 - Weathering and mass movement in drylands

3.1.2.2, 3.1.2.3 - Wind processes and aeolian landforms

3.1.2.2, 3.1.2.3 - Episodic water and arid landforms

Desertification and evidence

3.1.2.4 - Desertification, risk and changing extent

3.1.2.4, 3.1.2.6 - Desertification responses and local futures

3.1.2.5, 3.1.2.6 - A hot desert setting and field evidence

3.1.2.3 - Process, time and contrasting desert landscapes

3.1.3 Coastal systems and landscapes

Coastal processes and landscapes

3.1.3.1, 3.1.3.2 - Coastal systems and energy

3.1.3.2 - Sediment cells and coastal processes

3.1.3.3 - Erosional coastal landscapes

3.1.3.3 - Depositional coastal landscapes

3.1.3.3 - Estuaries, mudflats and saltmarshes

3.1.3.3 - Sea level and emergent or submerged coasts

3.1.3.3 - Climate, time and coastal landscape change

Management and contrasting coasts

3.1.3.4 - Engineering and sustainable coastal management

3.1.3.5 - Coastal field measurements and spatial evidence

3.1.3.6 - Local coastal processes and sustainable management

3.1.3.6 - A contrasting coast beyond the UK

3.1.4 Glacial systems and landscapes

Ice processes and landscapes

3.1.4.1, 3.1.4.2 - Cold environments and glacial systems

3.1.4.3 - Glacial budgets, advance and retreat

3.1.4.3 - Glacier types, movement and weathering

3.1.4.3, 3.1.4.4 - Glacial erosion and landscapes

3.1.4.3, 3.1.4.4 - Glacial transport and depositional landforms

3.1.4.3, 3.1.4.4 - Meltwater and fluvioglacial landscapes

3.1.4.3, 3.1.4.4 - Periglacial processes and landscapes

Cold-environment management and evidence

3.1.4.5 - Fragile cold environments and their futures

3.1.4.6 - Glacial field measurements and spatial evidence

3.1.4.7, 3.1.4.4 - Local glacial processes and landscape evidence

3.1.4.7 - A contrasting glaciated landscape beyond the UK

3.1.5 Hazards

Risk and tectonic hazards

3.1.5.1 - Hazard risk, perception and responses

3.1.5.2 - Earth structure and plate movement

3.1.5.2 - Plate margins, landforms and magma plumes

3.1.5.3 - Volcanic hazards and their patterns

3.1.5.3 - A recent volcanic event and responses

3.1.5.4 - Seismic hazards and their patterns

3.1.5.4 - A recent seismic event and responses

Atmospheric hazards and hazardous places

3.1.5.5 - Tropical storms and hazard patterns

3.1.5.5 - Two contrasting recent tropical storms

3.1.5.6 - Wildfire processes, impacts and responses

3.1.5.7 - A multi-hazardous environment beyond the UK

3.1.5.7 - A local community in a hazardous setting

3.1.6 Ecosystems under stress

Ecosystem functioning and biomes

3.1.6.1 - Biodiversity and ecosystem sustainability

3.1.6.2 - Ecosystem structure, energy and nutrient cycling

3.1.6.2 - Succession, environmental controls and change

3.1.6.3 - Biomes and tropical rainforest adaptations

3.1.6.3 - Savanna adaptations and biome comparison

3.1.6.3 - Development pressures in rainforest and savanna

Changing ecosystems and management

3.1.6.4 - British Isles succession and plagioclimax

3.1.6.5 - Coral reef processes, threats and futures

3.1.6.6, 3.1.6.7 - A local ecosystem and conservation

3.1.6.7 - Regional ecological change and community responses

3.2.3 Contemporary urban environments

Urban growth, form and inequality

3.2.3.1 - Urbanisation, megacities and world cities

3.2.3.1 - Urban growth, economic change and British policy

3.2.3.2 - Urban forms, land use and new landscapes

3.2.3.2, 3.2.3.3 - Inequality, segregation and cultural diversity

Urban physical systems and waste

3.2.3.4 - Urban climate, wind and air quality

3.2.3.5 - Urban water cycles and sustainable drainage

3.2.3.5 - Evaluating an urban river restoration project

3.2.3.6 - Urban waste and disposal choices

Environment and sustainable urban places

3.2.3.7 - Urban pollution and dereliction

3.2.3.8 - Sustainable cities, footprints and liveability

3.2.3.9 - An urban area's well-being and environment

3.2.3.9 - A contrasting urban area and sustainability

3.2.4 Population and the environment

Environment, food and health

3.2.4.1 - Population patterns and environmental context

3.2.4.2 - Climate, food systems and food security

3.2.4.2 - Zonal soils, agricultural problems and management

3.2.4.3 - Health patterns, development and environment

3.2.4.3 - A biologically transmitted disease

3.2.4.3 - A non-communicable disease and global health

Population change and futures

3.2.4.4 - Natural population change and the demographic dividend

3.2.4.4 - Migration processes and consequences

3.2.4.5 - Population ecology, resources and competing models

3.2.4.6 - Environmental change and population futures

Population and health case studies

3.2.4.7 - Population change in a country or society

3.2.4.7 - A local area's environment, health and experience

3.2.5 Resource security

Resource development and water security

3.2.5.1 - Resources, frontiers and sustainable development

3.2.5.2 - Resource patterns, trade and geopolitics

3.2.5.3 - Water availability, demand and stress

3.2.5.3 - Water supply strategies and a major scheme

3.2.5.3 - Water consumption, sustainability and conflict

Energy and mineral security

3.2.5.4 - Energy sources, demand and competing interests

3.2.5.4 - Energy development and supply strategies

3.2.5.4 - Energy demand management and sustainability

3.2.5.5 - A traded metal ore and extraction impacts

Resource futures and place studies

3.2.5.6 - Alternative resource futures

3.2.5.7 - Resource security and welfare in a regional setting

3.2.5.7 - Physical environment and resource use in a place

3.3 Independent geographical investigation

Planning and field investigation

3.3.1, 3.3.2.1, 3.3.2.2 - Fieldwork requirements and independent enquiry

3.3.2, 3.3.4.1 - Research questions, context and preliminary research

3.3.2, 3.3.4.2 - Fieldwork design, sampling and method justification

3.3.2, 3.3.4.2 - Collecting relevant, good-quality field evidence

Analysis, reporting and independence

3.3.2, 3.3.4.3 - Analysing, representing and interrogating field data

3.3.2, 3.3.3, 3.3.4.4 - Conclusions, wider context and evaluation

3.3.2, 3.3.4.4 - Coherent reporting, referencing and ethical reflection

3.3.2.2, 5.1, 5.2 - Authenticity, assistance and the candidate record

3.1.2.2, 3.1.2.3 - Episodic water and arid landforms

3.1.2.2, 3.1.2.3 - Episodic water and arid landforms

Explain how infrequent but energetic flows connect desert uplands to basin floors and distinguish depositional fans from erosional surfaces and residual hills.

Source, destination and duration of flow

Exogenous rivers receive much of their water from outside the desert, for example wetter headwaters, and can continue flowing through an arid region. Endoreic drainage, the specification's term commonly written endorheic, drains into an inland basin without a surface outlet to the sea. Water may infiltrate or evaporate from a terminal lake or playa. Ephemeral channels flow briefly in response to rainfall and are dry much of the time.

These categories describe different attributes. A river can receive external water and terminate in a closed basin; an ephemeral stream can also feed that basin. 'Exogenous', 'closed-basin' and 'ephemeral' are therefore not three mutually exclusive river sizes. Flow also varies seasonally and with water abstraction.

Episodic runoff and wadis

Short intense rain can exceed infiltration, especially on bare, crusted or rocky surfaces. Water first moves as relatively unconfined sheet flow, which can strip fine material, then concentrates into channels. A rapid rise in discharge creates a flash flood with enough energy to erode banks, entrain coarse debris and transport sediment. Rain upstream can flood a channel where no rain is falling locally; low annual rainfall does not mean low flood danger.

A wadi is a normally dry valley or channel shaped by intermittent flows. Weathering and slope failures supply debris to it between floods. During flow, channel gradient, roughness, water volume and load affect erosion and deposition. When water infiltrates into an alluvial bed, discharge can decline downstream; both loss of flow and reduced gradient favour sediment deposition.

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