3.3.2.1 - Nationalism - Principles, Strands and Debates
This lesson teaches nationalism as an AQA optional ideology. It covers the meaning of nation, popular sovereignty, core principles, minority nationalism, state nationalism, internal debates and the thinkers named in the AQA specification. It uses examples only to clarify the ideology, and does not turn nationalism into a history of particular countries or biographies of thinkers.
Nationalism as a claim
A nationalist does not simply say "I like my country." The stronger claim is that a people with a shared national identity should be able to shape its own political future.
Nationalism
The belief that the nation is a central political community and should have some form of self-determination.
Start with three terms:
| Term | Meaning | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|
| Nation | A group of people who see themselves as sharing a political, cultural, historical or territorial identity. | Nationalists treat this identity as morally and politically important. |
| State | A set of governing institutions with authority over a defined territory and population. | A state can contain one nation, several nations, or only part of a nation. |
| Nation-state | The ideal that the borders of the state and the boundaries of the nation broadly match. | Many nationalist movements want the nation and state to coincide more closely. |
| Sovereignty of the people | The idea that ultimate political authority should come from the people, not from a ruler, empire or outside power. | This links nationalism to democratic and republican claims, especially in Rousseau and Mazzini. |
The key point is that nation and state are not the same thing. The United Kingdom is a state, but it contains multiple national identities, including British, English, Scottish, Welsh, Irish and Northern Irish identities. Scotland is not a sovereign state, but many people understand it as a nation. That is why Scottish independence can be described as minority nationalism: a national group inside a larger state claims greater self-government or statehood.
Nationalism becomes controversial because the word "nation" can be defined in different ways. Some nationalists define the nation politically: people belong because they share citizenship, institutions and a public commitment to self-government. Others define it culturally: people belong because they share language, history, religion, ethnicity, customs or traditions. These definitions can overlap, but they also pull nationalism in different directions.
Use this simple map:
Shared identity -> claim to political community -> demand for self-determination -> debate over state power, membership and minorities
That map explains why nationalism can appear liberating and dangerous at the same time. It can free a people from empire, colonial rule or domination. It can also exclude people who are told they do not really belong to the nation.
Core principles
Nationalism has a thin core. It is not as economically detailed as socialism or as centred on individual liberty as liberalism. Its core idea is that the nation matters politically. From that, several principles follow.
| Principle | What nationalists usually claim | Main tension |
|---|---|---|
| Nationhood | Humans are not just isolated individuals; they are shaped by a national community. | Is the nation based on shared political choice or inherited culture? |
| Self-determination | A nation should be able to decide its own political future. | Does self-determination require full independence, or can autonomy and devolution be enough? |
| Popular sovereignty | Democratic nationalists regard the people, understood as a national community, as the source of legitimate authority. | Can "the people" have one general will when society is diverse? |
| National unity | Citizens should feel solidarity with fellow members of the nation. | Unity can support democracy, but it can also suppress dissent. |
| Cultural identity | Language, tradition, history and symbols can bind a nation together. | Cultural pride can become cultural exclusion. |
| National interest | Government should defend the security, welfare and dignity of the nation. | The national interest can conflict with minority rights, global duties or individual freedom. |
For AQA, you should connect these principles to four ideological areas: human nature, the state, society and the economy.
| Area | Nationalist view | How it creates debate |
|---|---|---|
| Human nature | People are social and identity-forming. They seek belonging, recognition and a shared story, not only private freedom or material interest. | Liberal nationalists may see people as civic citizens; cultural nationalists may see people as deeply shaped by inherited traditions. |
| The state | The state is legitimate when it expresses the nation and protects national self-determination. | Some nationalists want democratic statehood; others prioritise order, unity and authority over democracy. |
| Society | Society is a national community with common memories, loyalties and obligations. | This can encourage solidarity, but it can also pressure minorities to conform. |
| The economy | The economy may be judged by whether it strengthens national independence, dignity and collective power. | Garvey stresses economic empowerment; other nationalists may support protectionism, state-building or national development, while liberal nationalists may accept markets. |
This is why nationalism is often called a flexible or "thin" ideology. It gives a powerful answer to the question "Who are we politically?" but it does not always give one fixed answer to questions about capitalism, welfare, democracy or rights. Those answers depend on the strand of nationalism being used.
Active reading: Which core nationalist principle most clearly links Rousseau, Mazzini and Garvey?
Minority and state nationalism
AQA names two important types: minority nationalism and state nationalism. The difference is about who is making the nationalist claim.
| Type | Definition | Common aims | Example logic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minority nationalism | Nationalism by a national group that exists within a larger state where it is not the dominant state-wide nation. | Cultural recognition, language rights, devolution, autonomy, federalism, independence or secession. | "We are a distinct people and should govern ourselves more fully." |
| State nationalism | Nationalism promoted by an existing state to create, protect or intensify common loyalty to the state-nation. | National integration, unity, citizenship, shared symbols, territorial integrity, state power or assimilation. | "The state must build and defend one national community." |
Minority nationalism is not always separatist. A minority nation may want its language protected, its institutions recognised or its autonomy strengthened without demanding full independence. However, it can become separatist when nationalists argue that only an independent state can secure self-determination.
Scotland is the clearest UK example. In the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, voters were asked whether Scotland should be an independent country. The result was 55.3% No and 44.7% Yes, on turnout of 84.6%. This matters for nationalism because it shows a minority national claim being tested through a democratic process. It also shows that a nation can be politically divided: not all Scottish voters supported independence, even though Scotland is widely understood as a nation.
Minority nationalism process:
Distinct identity inside a larger state
-> claim that the state does not fully represent the nation
-> mobilisation through parties, culture, campaigns or referendums
-> demand for recognition, autonomy or independence
State nationalism starts from the other direction. An existing state tries to build loyalty around national symbols, citizenship, education, language, armed forces, monarchy or republican institutions. State nationalism can be inclusive if it offers a shared civic identity to different groups. It can be exclusionary if it defines only one language, religion, ethnicity or culture as truly national.
State nationalism process:
Existing state claims to represent the nation
-> state promotes common loyalty and identity
-> citizens are encouraged to see the state as "our" national home
-> minorities may be integrated, recognised, pressured or excluded
This distinction creates a major debate. Minority nationalism often presents itself as liberation from domination. State nationalism often presents itself as protection of unity and sovereignty. But both can be democratic or coercive. A minority nationalist movement can ignore minorities inside its own proposed state. A state nationalist project can create solidarity or suppress difference.
Active reading: Why can Scottish nationalism be called minority nationalism even when Scotland has its own Parliament?
Named thinkers
The named thinkers are not there for biography. They are evidence for different nationalist claims about human nature, the state, society and the economy.
| Thinker | AQA focus | What they add to nationalism | Link to human nature, state, society and economy |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jean Jacques Rousseau | General will, sovereignty of the people, opposition to representative assembly. | Civic and democratic nationalism: a legitimate political community should express the will of the people. | Humans can be citizens who participate in a common will; the state is legitimate when law comes from the people; society must be sufficiently unified to seek the common good; large inequalities can corrupt civic freedom. |
| Johann Gottfried von Herder | Language and cultural traditions create a nation; nationality and patriotism. | Cultural nationalism: nations are shaped by language, memory and traditions, not only by state borders. | Humans are culturally embedded; the state is less central than the national culture; society is organic and historically formed; economic life is secondary to cultural identity. |
| Giuseppe Mazzini | Republicanism and nationalism; thought and action. | Liberal/republican nationalism: national unity and independence should produce a free republican community. | Humans have duties and must act for collective liberation; the state should be a national republic; society should be united through civic duty; the economy matters insofar as national freedom and social duty require action. |
| Marcus Garvey | Garveyism, global mass movement, economic empowerment focused on Africa, Pan-Africanism. | Pan-African and Black nationalism: a dispersed people can claim dignity, unity and empowerment beyond one existing state. | Humans need pride, self-reliance and collective recognition; the state is not the only container of nationhood; society can be diasporic and global; economic empowerment is central to liberation. |
| Charles Maurras | Integral nationalism, anti-France, rejection of democratic principles. | Authoritarian and exclusionary nationalism: the nation is treated as an organic unity above democracy and individual rights. | Humans are viewed through hierarchy and inherited belonging; the state is supreme and anti-liberal; society is defined by insiders and enemies; economic life is subordinated to national unity and order. |
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